Nursing During Civil War Essay

The American Civil War occurred between 1861 and 1865. When the war began, there was no organized medical corps for either the Union Army or the Confederate Army. Up until then, nursing was still considered a â€Å"loose term† as far what a nurse is and does. There were no official nursing schools or professional trained nurses available. As newspapers wrote about the poor and unsanitary conditions that wounded solider were subjected to, hundreds of women volunteered to help provide assistance to the wound solders (Egenes). Make-shift hospital and clinics were created on the battlefield to care for the wounded. As a result of having no organized medical corps in the army, conditions at most of the hospitals were poor. More soldiers during this time died of complications other than battlefield wounds such as dysentery, small pox, and pneumonia. (Son of the South). Hospitals were overcrowded and nurses lacked adequate quality of food and water, clean clothing, sanitation equipment, and other medication supplies to properly provide care for the injured. Because of this, hospitals were breeding grounds for disease and death. During this time, army physicians did not favor female volunteer nurses, believing female nurses were inexperienced and disorganized. Several woman help elevate the status of nurses during the Civil War and on. One woman that did just that was Dorothea Dix. Dix was a school teacher that was appointed as the Superintendent of Army Nursing for the Union Army. Through her position she was able to help organized medical efforts, set standards for military nurses, and to lobby for medical supplies for the Union Army. Another woman that had an impact on nursing was Clara Burton, also known as â€Å"Angel of the Battlefield. After her father died, she began to collect supplies and provide care to the wounded at the front lines. As word around the army grew about her compassion and care, Burton began getting support for her cause and the nursing cause as a whole. After the war, she continued her efforts in nursing and eventually inaugurated a movement to gain recognition for the International Committee of the Red Cross by the United States government (Epler).

Revised GRE

[pic] GRADUATE RECORD EXAMINATIONS ® Practice General Test #1 Answer Key for Sections 1-4 Copyright  © 2010 by Educational Testing Service. All rights reserved. ETS, the ETS logo, GRADUATE RECORD EXAMINATIONS, and GRE are registered trademarks of Educational Testing Service (ETS) in the United States and other countries. Revised GRE ® Practice Test Number 1 Answer Key for Section 1. Verbal Reasoning. 25 Questions. Question 1 Answer: A. In various parts of the world, civilizations that could not make iron from ore fashioned tools out of fragments of iron from meteorites.Question 2 Answer: A. An increased focus on the importance of engaging the audience in a narrative Question 3 Answer: C. speak to Question 4 Answer: A. People with access to an electric washing machine typically wore their clothes many fewer times before washing them than did people without access to electric washing machines. Question 5 Answer: C. insular Answer in context: In the 1950’s, the country†™s inhabitants were insular: most of them knew very little about foreign countries. Question 6 Answer: E. insincereAnswer in context: Since she believed him to be both candid and trustworthy, she refused to consider the possibility that his statement had been insincere. Question 7 Answer: A. maturity Answer in context: It is his dubious distinction to have proved what nobody would think of denying, that Romero at the age of sixty-four writes with all the characteristics of maturity. Question 8 Answer: C. comparing two scholarly debates and discussing their histories Question 9 Answer: D. identify a reason for a certain difference in the late 1970’s between the origins debate and the debate over American women’s status Question 10Answer: D. Their approach resembled the approach taken in studies by Wood and by Mullin in that they were interested in the experiences of people subjected to a system of subordination. Question 11 Answer: A. gave more attention to the experi ences of enslaved women Question 12 Answer: A. construe F. collude in Answer in context: The narratives that vanquished peoples have created of their defeat have, according to Schivelbusch, fallen into several identifiable types. In one of these, the vanquished manage to construe the victor’s triumph as the result of some spurious advantage, the victors being truly inferior where it counts.Often the winners collude in this interpretation, worrying about the cultural or moral costs of their triumph and so giving some credence to the losers’ story. Question 13 Answer: B. settled E. ambiguity G. similarly equivocal Answer in context: I’ve long anticipated this retrospective of the artist’s work, hoping that it would make settled judgments about him possible, but greater familiarity with his paintings highlights their inherent ambiguity and actually makes one’s assessment similarly equivocal.Question 14 Answer: A. a debased E. goose bumps Answer in con text: Stories are a haunted genre; hardly a debased kind of story, the ghost story is almost the paradigm of the form, and goose bumps was undoubtedly one effect that Poe had in mind when he wrote about how stories work. Question 15 Answer: C. patent E. improbable Answer in context: Given how patent the shortcomings of the standard economic model are in its portrayal of human behavior, the failure of many economists to respond to them is astonishing.They continue to fill the journals with yet more proofs of yet more improbable theorems. Others, by contrast, accept the criticisms as a challenge, seeking to expand the basic model to embrace a wider range of things people do. Question 16 Answer: B. startling D. jettison Answer in context: The playwright’s approach is startling in that her works jettison the theatrical devices normally used to create drama on the stage. Question 17 Answer: B. create F. logical Answer in context: Scientists are not the only persons who examine the world bout them by the use of rational processes, although they sometimes create this impression by extending the definition of â€Å"scientist† to include anyone who is logical in his or her investigational practices. Question 18 Answer: C. It presents a specific application of a general principle. Question 19 Answer: A. outstrip Question 20 Answer: B. It is a mistake to think that the natural world contains many areas of pristine wilderness. Question 21 Answer: C. coincident with Question 22 Sentence to be Completed:Dreams are BLANK in and of themselves, but, when combined with other data, they can tell us much about the dreamer. Answer: D. inscrutable, F. uninformative Question 23 Sentence to be Completed: Linguistic science confirms what experienced users of ASL—American Sign Language—have always implicitly known:   ASL is a grammatically BLANK language, as capable of expressing a full range of syntactic relations as any natural spoken language. Answer: A . complete, F. unlimited Question 24 Sentence to be Completed:The macromolecule RNA is common to all living beings, and DNA, which is found in all organisms except some bacteria, is almost as BLANK. Answer: D. universal, F. ubiquitous Question 25 Sentence to be Completed: Early critics of Emily Dickinson’s poetry mistook for simple-mindedness the surface of artlessness that in fact she constructed with such BLANK. Answer: B. craft, C. cunning This is the end of the answer key for Revised GRE Practice Test 1, Section 1. Revised GRE Practice Test Number 1 Answer Key for Section 2. Verbal Reasoning. 25 Questions. Question 1Sentence to be Completed: In the long run, high-technology communications cannot BLANK more traditional face-to-face family togetherness, in Aspinall’s view. Answer: C. supercede, F. supplant Question 2 Sentence to be Completed: Even in this business, where BLANK is part of everyday life, a talent for lying is not something usually found on one’s resume. Answer: B. mendacity, C. prevarication Question 3 Sentence to be Completed: A restaurant’s menu is generally reflected in its decor; however despite this restaurant’s BLANK appearance it is pedestrian in the menu it offers.Answer: A. elegant, F. chic (spelled C H I C) Question 4 Sentence to be Completed: International financial issues are typically BLANK by the United States media because they are too technical to make snappy headlines and too inaccessible to people who lack a background in economics. Answer: A. neglected, B. slighted Question 5 Sentence to be Completed: While in many ways their personalities could not have been more different—she was ebullient where he was glum, relaxed where he was awkward, garrulous where he was BLANK—they were surprisingly well suited.Answer: D. laconic, F. taciturn Question 6 Answer: D. spirituals Question 7 Answer: B. They had little working familiarity with such forms of American music as jazz, blues, and popular songs. Question 8 Answer: E. neglected Johnson’s contribution to classical symphonic music Question 9 Answer: C. The editorial policies of some early United States newspapers became a counterweight to proponents of traditional values. Question 10 Answer: A. insincerely Question 11 Answer: Blank 1 C. multifaceted Blank 2 F. extraneousAnswer in context: The multifaceted nature of classical tragedy in Athens belies the modern image of tragedy:   in the modern view tragedy is austere and stripped down, its representations of ideological and emotional conflicts so superbly compressed that there’s nothing extraneous for time to erode. Question 12 Answer: Blank 1 C. ambivalence Blank 2 E. successful Blank 3 H. assuage Answer in context: Murray, whose show of recent paintings and drawings is her best in many years, has been eminent hereabouts for a quarter century, although often regarded with ambivalence, but the most successful of these aintings assuage all doubts. Question 13 Answer: B. a doctrinaire Answer in context: Far from viewing Jefferson as a skeptical but enlightened intellectual, historians of the 1960’s portrayed him as a doctrinaire thinker, eager to fill the young with his political orthodoxy while censoring ideas he did not like. Question 14 Answer: C. recapitulates Answer in context: Dramatic literature often recapitulates the history of a culture in that it takes as its subject matter the important events that have shaped and guided the culture. Question 15 Answer: E. ffirm the thematic coherence underlying Raisin in the Sun Question 16 Answer: C. The painter of this picture could not intend it to be funny; therefore, its humor must result from a lack of skill. Question 17 Answer: E. (Sentence 5) But the play’s complex view of Black self-esteem and human solidarity as compatible is no more â€Å"contradictory† than DuBois’s famous, well-considered ideal of ethnic self-awareness coexisting with huma n unity, or Fanon’s emphasis on an ideal internationalism that also accommodates national identities and roles. Question 18 Answer: C.Because of shortages in funding, the organizing committee of the choral festival required singers to purchase their own copies of the music performed at the festival. Question 19 Answer: Blank 1 C. mimicking Blank 2 D. transmitted to Answer in context: New technologies often begin by mimicking what has gone before, and they change the world later. Think how long it took power-using companies to recognize that with electricity they did not need to cluster their machinery around the power source, as in the days of steam. Instead, power could be transmitted to their processes.In that sense, many of today’s computer networks are still in the steam age. Their full potential remains unrealized. Question 20 Answer: Blank 1 B. opaque to Blank 2 D. an arcane Answer in context: There has been much hand-wringing about how unprepared American studen ts are for college. Graff reverses this perspective, suggesting that colleges are unprepared for students. In his analysis, the university culture is largely opaque to entering students because academic culture fails to make connections to the kinds of arguments and cultural references that students grasp.Understandably, many students view academic life as an arcane ritual. Question 21 Answer: Blank 1 C. defiant Blank 2 D. disregard for Answer in context: Of course anyone who has ever perused an unmodernized text of Captain Clark’s journals knows that the Captain was one of the most defiant spellers ever to write in English, but despite this disregard for orthographical rules, Clark is never unclear. Question 22 Answer: A. There have been some open jobs for which no qualified FasCorp employee applied. Question 23 Answer: C. presenting a possible explanation of a phenomenonQuestion 24 Two of the answer choices are correct: A. The pull theory is not universally accepted by scie ntists. B. The pull theory depends on one of water’s physical properties. Question 25 Answer: E. the mechanism underlying water’s tensile strength This is the end of the answer key for Revised GRE Practice Test 1, Section 2. Revised GRE Practice Test Number 1 Answer Key for Section 3. Quantitative Reasoning. 25  Questions. Question 1 Answer: A. Quantity A is greater. Question 2 Answer: BQuantity B is greater. Question 3 Answer: BQuantity B is greater. Question 4 Answer: D.The relationship cannot be determined from the information given. Question 5 Answer: D. The relationship cannot be determined from the information given. Question 6 Answer: A. Quantity A is greater. Question 7 Answer: D. The relationship cannot be determined from the information given. Question 8 Answer: C. The two quantities are equal. Question 9 Answer: D. The relationship cannot be determined from the information given. Question 10 Answer: B. [pic] three halves Question 11 Answer: The answer to q uestion 11 consists of four of the answer choices. A. 12 ° B. 15 ° C. 5 ° D. 50 ° Question 12 Answer: A. 10 Question 13 Answer: D. 15 Question 14 Answer: A. 299 Question 15 Answer: In question 15 you were asked to enter either an integer or a decimal number. The answer to question 15 is 3,600. Question 16 Answer: A. 8 Question 17 Answer: In question 17 you were asked to enter either an integer or a decimal number. The answer to question 17 is 250. Question 18 Answer: C. Three Question 19 Answer: B. Manufacturing. Question 20 Answer: A:5. 2 Question 21 Answer: B. More than half of the titles distributed by M are also distributed by L.Question 22 Answer: A. c  +  d Question 23 Answer: In question 23 you were asked to enter either an integer or a decimal. The answer to question 23 is 36. 5. Question 24 Answer: D. [pic] two fifths Question 25 Answer: D. [pic] three halves This is the end of the answer key for Revised GRE Practice Test 1, Section 3. Revised GRE Practice Test Number 1 Answer Key for Section 4. Quantitative Reasoning. 25   Questions. Question 1 Answer: A. Quantity A is greater. Question 2 Answer: D. The relationship cannot be determined from the information given. Question 3 Answer: D.The relationship cannot be determined from the information given. Question 4 Answer: D. The relationship cannot be determined from the information given. Question 5 Answer: B. Quantity B is greater. Question 6 Answer: A. Quantity A is greater. Question 7 Answer: C. The two quantities are equal. Question 8 Answer: A. Quantity A is greater. Question 9 Answer: C. The two quantities are equal. Question 10 Answer: D:j  k  +  j Question 11 Answer: In question 11 you were asked to enter a fraction. The answer to question 11 is the fraction [pic] one over four. Question 12Answer: The answer to question 12 consists of four of the answer choices. B. $43,350 C. $47,256 D. $51,996 E. $53,808 Question 13 Answer: E. 676,000 Question 14 Answer: E. [pic] s squared m inus p squared Question 15 Answer: B. [pic] k minus 1 Question 16 Answer: B. 110,000 Question 17 Answer: B:3 to 1 Question 18 Answer: E. 1,250 Question 19 Answer: C:948 Question 20 Answer: The answer to question 20 consists of two answer choices. B. Students majoring in either social sciences or physical sciences constitute more than 50 percent of the total enrollment.C. The ratio of the number of males to the number of females in the senior class is less than 2 to 1. Question 21 Answer: B. [pic] 33 and 1 third percent Question 22 Answer: A. 12 Question 23 Answer: D. 4,400 Question 24 Answer: In question 24 you were asked to enter either an integer or a decimal number. The answer to question 24 is 10. Question 25 Answer: The answer to question 25 consists of 5 answer choices. B. 3. 0 C. 3. 5 D. 4. 0 E. 4. 5 F. 5. 0 This is the end of the answer key for Revised GRE Practice Test 1, Section 4.

Hispanic Identity

Hispanic Identity Tammy Simpson University of Phoenix Hispanic Identity Names are very important and when discussing the differences between racial or cultural, it is very important to remain culturally sensitive. Explaining the differences between Hispanics, Latino, Chicano, and Mexican American may give you a better understand of why some people choice what they want to be called. Because people should be able to choose how he or she is called and names disempowered can have serious repercussions. Hispanic or Latino Americans are categorized as a group of people made up of distinct characteristics.Every group should be allowed to choose their own name as well. When individuals or groups are called names that we do not wish to be called they can become upset or even annoyed. Some want to be called Hispanic and others Latinos, so how do you vary or distinguish. Well Chicano is just too narrow, encompassing only members of the Mexican-American community or anyone else of Mexican herit age. The word â€Å"Chicano† was once considered derogatory when it first emerged, but later generations of Mexican-Americans have since considered it acceptable and embraced the term, at least unofficially.The Term Chicano was thought to have originated as slang that described immigrants from the Mexican revolution, but later evolved to define the uprising of Mexican American reformers. The Chicano Movement changed Mexican Americans’ lives in the United States’ economy. It was a movement that secured these people in the economy with civil rights and economic opportunity. They used tactics such as civil disobedience as an influential way to make it known that â€Å"change† was inevitable.Marches, hunger strikes, and litigation were methods that they used. Mexican Americans consist of the largest Hispanic group within the United States. Their history has covered over 400 years within America, varying in different regions. In such states as California, Texa s, New Mexico, Arizona, and Nevada, great portions of Mexican Americans subsist there. (â€Å"Mexican Americans,† 1997-2007) The word â€Å"Hispanic† is more worldwide then â€Å"Chicano†. Historically, areas that were conquered by the Spaniards were considered part of an area called Hispania.Countries that traced their history to Spain are considered to be Hispanic and include Mexico, Central America, and most of South America where Spanish is the prime language. Latino is extremely close in meaning to Hispanic, but is also includes other countries such as Brazil. Latino was popularized during the social movements of the 1960’s. While â€Å"Latino† may be politically and socially correct, it is still better to be ethnically aware of a person’s heritage then referring him or her to the broader term Latino.Descendants of pre Columbian populations from Latin America and most of those from parts of the United States who were part of the Spanish Colonial Empire are considered Latinos/as. However Native Americans, United States citizens who are of pre –Columbian derivation, but whose ancestors lived in areas outside what constitutes United States territory today are not considered Latinos/as. The children born in Latin American from Spaniards are considered Latinos/as, but Spaniards themselves are not (Latinos or Hispanics?A Debate About Indentity, 2003) Hispanic population today has expanded immensely over the years. The growth rate of the Hispanic community has grown faster than any other racial and ethnic group in the nation. The Hispanic community and culture has populated around the United States, and introducing new traditions and customs. Hispanics or Latinos are defined as people of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, and other Spanish speaking cultures and if you travel to different cities in the States we will see a wide spread of Hispanic communities.For instance in New York the Puerto Rican culture is dominated , and in Miami the Cuban culture is populating the area (Cattan, 1993). Hispanic groups are known in the social economic, politics, labor force, and religion. Spanish culture has an effect on a variety of areas such as music, food and language. Learning about others culture is always good, especially when visiting other countries. Our differences are what make us fascinating and such a diverse country. Hispanics in the United States have significantly contributed to much of our society’s culture and way of life for centuries.Ranging from politics, public service, military, business, science, organized sports to even the entertainment industry, you can find their imprint everywhere if you take a closer look. It is quite a wonder as to the many historians whom have not acknowledged Hispanics’ impact on history, as they are just as woven into America’s history as any other race or nationality. Many of our folklore and achievements are given credit to them. The Unit ed States is a major representative of all immigrants of the world into the symbolic â€Å"melting pot† that we are known for today. â€Å"Contributions of,† n. d. ) The Hispanic group adds to that diversity. A survey of the community conducted last year by the Per Hispanic Center of Washington found that nearly all people from Spanish speaking backgrounds identify themselves primarily by their place of national origin (Latinos or Hispanics? A Debate About Indentity, 2003). When the Mexican Americans came to America in search of the American dream they never thought the lack of education would stop them from advancing to a higher paying job. But in the labor field Mexicans are getting fair pay.There are both positive and negative views on parts of the economy pertaining to the Hispanic culture. The more we spend has a positive effect on the economy and the employer benefits from the cut cost on labor by employing Hispanics for lower pay. There is a downside to employin g workers for lower pay is the impact on government debt. Because workers are using government programs and schools but not paying taxes it depletes government spending. Marketing and consumer behavior is becoming increasing important in the Hispanic-American culture in the United States.Cuban Americans do not have rights in and liberty and flee to the United States not as immigrants but political refugees seeking freedom. Cuban Americans had the highest rate of business ownership among Hispanic groups, with approximately one ethnic-owned enterprise for every 16 Cuban Americans (MSN, Ecarta). Cubans are generally Roman Catholics; however, it has been greatly modified to â€Å"syncretism† by large amounts of support since Catholicism’s early introduction into Cuban’s history. (â€Å"Religion in,† n. d. Mexican Americans, Cubans, Puerto Ricans and El Salvadorians are just to name a few who are a part of the Hispanic group. But each and every one of these gr oups shares a part of their Hispanic culture with one another, but they also vary in distinguished ways. Although they share the Spanish language the dialect can be different and the words pronounced the same many have different meanings, which gives them the distinctiveness within their group. Hispanic Americans, on the basis of language have a rich cultural identity (Noble, J and LaCasa, J).Being able to speak the Spanish language gives you a competitive edge in the job market. Being bilingual is imperative to the Unites States economy. The Hispanic culture is becoming more involved in the politics. I believe many Hispanics follow the Republican Party more so than Democratic. Mexican Americans and Puerto Ricans prefer liberal nominees in national and state elections. Hispanic Americans cultural variety is imitated in the different groups as well as in the foundations of the individual cultures.Hispanic culture has been known to be swayed to different degrees by many customs, but t he Cuban Americans stay within the culture tradition and stern values. Hispanic families raise their children to realize the importance of values, ethics, and respect for their elders and authority. The church plays a significant role in the quality of life and the greater part of the Hispanic community is Roman Catholic. I feel that is one of the Hispanic’s group strong point is the balance of spiritually and how it important to the family way of life. Hispanics are becoming a large part of the economy in the America and its community.The Hispanic culture is as unique and special as any other, and should be treated with the correct hospitality as anyone else. From pop music to food to political campaigns and corporate marketing the Hispanic community has made very strong present in the United States. I think as the years goes by we see that the Spanish community will become the majority, instead of the minority. I’m really drawn to the Hispanic ethic group. I admire t heir traditions and how they are very family oriented. The overall Spanish culture has brought a lot of traditions and culture to add the American diversity.Although current terms such as â€Å"Latino† and â€Å"Hispanic† function both as forms of self identification and also to mark Latin American populations in the United States as recognizable civic bodies, these terms, in their current popular manifestations, not only â€Å"refer to different dimensions of collective social experience,†(Flores, 2000,p. 194) Hispanic is pragmatic, because no matter what one says Hispanics first and foremost applies to Spaniards and this can be used to refer to Latin Americans and Latinos/as only secondarily or derivatively.Not only does Hispanic imply derivatively Spanish, but in many places it is associated with negative qualities: for example laziness, lax morals, lower class, deficient education, and so on. (Garcia, 2000)References www. wisegeek. com/what-is-the-difference -between-latino-chicano-and-hispanic. htm http://webhost. bridgew. edu/lasociedadlatina/articles/latinos%20or%20hispanics. pdf http://www. encarta. msn. com/encyclopedia_761587500/mexican_americans. html http://www. opensecrets. org/pubs/cubareport/roots. asp

Music Cultures & Marketing Principles Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Music Cultures & Marketing Principles - Essay Example Presently, digital media is a mass source in context of production, consumption and distribution of music. The growing competition in the entertainment industry has resulted in a greater demand for strong marketing strategy so that the industry is protected from piracy and distribution is not hampered in the process. The music industry can be classified in two sectors: music recording and musical events (Vaccaro and Cohn, 2004). The paper focuses on discussing various components of marketing mix that has positive impact on the industry as a whole. Music industry is primarily defined by the creation and selling of music by an individual or by certain company. The recording industry is one of the primary sources of income in the music and entertainment industry. There are a number of individuals who operate within the music industry namely, music composer, lyricists, instrumentalists, music publishers, producers, sound engineers and legal managers. The functions in the recording industry do not end with just creation of music; it is rather the first step which is followed by several other steps such as giving the music shape of commodity in the form of CDs, DVDs and soft copies, marketing and promoting the recorded sound and selling the same at a pre-decided price (Hull, Hutchison and Strasser, 2011). Rapid evolution of interactive marketing methods and online distribution channels, following ongoing marketing trends may not prove sufficient for recording companies. The companies need to focus developing marketing strategy for the future while considering current trends as the base. Two important measures that these companies require adopting include legalisation of the music they produce so as to gain control and undertake measure to compete with piracy as going by the trend, it is almost impossible for even legal institutions to stop piracy. In the following section, each element of marketing mix has been discussed elaborately that record

Abraham Lincoln, Slavery, and the Civil War Essay

Abraham Lincoln, Slavery, and the Civil War - Essay Example Going by Lincoln’s second inaugural address which took place on March 4th, 1865, one can cogently defend the standpoint that as the 16th President of the US, he was interested in reconstructing the Union. In the first place, it can be considered that although he wanted reconstruction, yet he preferred a pragmatic approach. This is seen in the manner in which Lincoln tried to eschew sentiments that would be indicative of punitive measures against the South, even after its defeat. In a way that betrays ingenuity, Lincoln sought to cast both sides as subject to imperfection, in a clever way of toning down the anger against the South. For instance, Lincoln states that â€Å"†¦ Both sides dreaded the war and sought to avert it (Johnson 64)† Lincoln also said that â€Å"Neither of the parties expected the war, its magnitude, its duration which had already been attained (Ibid 64).† Lincoln also goes further to state that both sides â€Å"†¦ Read the same Bible and invoked the same God (Ibid 65).† Nevertheless, all the above are more of vestiges of a pragmatic approach to constructivism than a show of appeasement of desperation for unification. The prospects of Lincoln’s constructivism are also underscored by the very speech that others would merely pass as unifying. The constructivist aspect of the speech is also underlined by the pieces that are found within the same speech. In a particular instance, he lambasts the prospects of slavery which was very popular and full fledged in the South. In an instance, he quoted Jesus Christ in the Gospel according to St. Matthew, XVIII: VII to state that although offenses were inevitable, yet the person who acts as the perpetrator or harbinger of the same, would be in trouble or deep danger (Johnson 65). In the same wavelength, Lincoln said that if God was willing that the war continues, so that all the wealth that slave owners had amassed be destroyed and all the blood that had been drawn by the taskmaster’s whip be aveng ed, the same would still prove the justice of God’s judgments (Johnson 65). To show for the seriousness of the matter, Loewen (37) explains that there are certain measures that Lincoln followed through to show that he was interested in the reconstruction of the American nation. The first and the most prominent was the role he played in the adopting of the Fourteenth Amendment to the US Constitution on July 9th, 1868. As a matter of fact, Amendment XIV is one of the most popular Reconstruction Amendments. Among many things, Amendment XIV reconstructed the definition of citizenship to include blacks. This totally overruled the 1857 ruling of the Supreme Court, which in the case, Dred Scott v. Sandford had ostracized the black race from the American citizenship. This amendment had within it, the clause that mandated every state of the US to accord every of its citizen with equal protection and rights, without any discrimination (Arnesen 20). According to Loewen (38), even crusad ers against gender discrimination found much help in Amendment XIV since it set the stage for the 1954 Brown v. Board and the Reed v. Reed which totally proscribed all manner of discriminations. The prospects of the Fourteenth Amendment is being seen as a tool that was used for restructuring or reconstruction is also illustrated by its spelling of the conditions under which citizenship could be extended to an individual or revoked. This proved to be a double-edged sword since it excluded many prominent members of the Confederacy from the government. This is a shift away from unification attempts. In the same vein, Lincoln’s speech and behavior relevant to the speech cannot leave an

Succession Planning and Management in Governmental IT Organizations Dissertation - 1

Succession Planning and Management in Governmental IT Organizations - Dissertation Example It employed the use of three questionnaires to assess the provincial Government’s SPM structure, staff members assessment of current leaders who are products of the present SPM process and to test the applicability of the new process. Two hundred and forty participants participated in the Survey, participants included Human Resources Personnel, staff members from the different Ministries in the State and managers. Analysis of data was done using simple percentages . Survey results of the experiment indicates that even though Alberta Government has an SPM structure in place as it is uncommon with other State Governments; the structure has not really produced leaders with the desired management and leadership skills to develop the succession candidates; study also suggests that the current Alberta process is not really suited to the complexities of the IT organizations. The study therefore developed a process of SPM based on Ley 2002’s and Whittmore 2006 approach to SPM w hich includes eight elements altogether and the process tested. Results show that th

Food Memoir Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Food Memoir - Essay Example My grandmother made sure that all of us were present for dinner together. Today we cherish those moments and value the tradition as we realize that food holds the family together. I have always seen my mother do the shopping and as I grew up I used to accompany her to the malls. I used to be amazed at the way she knew exactly what was required for the kitchen and in what quantities! She took care of the personal food habits of all of us in the family and till date I admire this quality in her. If only a few things were required, she would buy them from the street vendor occasionally. As children, we were expected to go to bed early but we were given the privilege of sitting down together for dinner. Ours was a closely knit family and my parents and grandmother used to have an early meal with us. After we went to bed, they lazed around over coffee and clearing the table. Meals were always sat at the dinner table and never in front of the television. Today when I see the distractions that the television causes, I realize and value the teachings and the discipline during food. We learned to value food, we learned to taste food and we learned to enjoy food. Food eaten while watching a television show is merely â€Å"eaten† and not enjoyed. We enjoyed food and the food time. We were taught the table etiquettes which included saying the prayers before starting the meal. We also waited for our grandmother to start first and then we followed. We were not allowed to talk while munching on food and once I remember, when I was just about three years old, I made a gurgling noise as the soup was too hot! My mom immediately corrected me and said this was indecent. What I liked about my family was that we were never scolded but given reasons for doing or not doing something. That made it easier to remember it the next time and we seldom repeated it. At the end of the meal we again said a thanksgiving prayer. Oh, and we had to

Black community of America Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Black community of America - Essay Example Same applies to the political system. According to Professor Greenburg, there is a slight difference between white and black children, when it comes to political system, because the black children a they grow older become less supportive. The blacks are really 'invisible men' when it comes to political region. Possible racial differences in political socialization are persisting. Meredith v Jefferson had been an interesting case showing a small flaw in the policy of modern schooling. Education system in America over the years had been painstakingly non-racial. Americans have been happy over the education policies that treated the children equally, irrespective of class, region, creed and race. Minority children had not been marginalized in any way. Still, in Kentucky's Jefferson County, some Black children were subjected to long journeys up to three hours to reach schools and return, for the simple reason, because there existed a law saying that every public school should not have more than 50% black student population, but not less than 15%. The law existed not due to racial discrimination, but only because it was thought not to have too overwhelming a majority of any race. Only a minority number of students were affected due to this law, resulting in long journeys spending more time than they should to reach school and back home. It was also argued that ch ildren and their parents were kept out of the entire community because they go to a far off schools and that community could not belong to them as they were not part of it. "The current arrangement, instituted in 2001, has some students being bused cross-county, taking up more time per day than most students spend in transit in several weeks. It poses obvious logistical issues and detaches children and their parents from the communities they call home, parents say" http://docket.medill.northwestern.edu/archives/003698.php Parents were also upset about the long process of annual admissions to magnet and non-magnet schools, and brought a civil suit against the county in the US District Court for the Western District of Kentucky. The claim was that their children's equality rights have been violated, and this particular act was against the 14th Amendment on the Equal Protection Clause and the District Court upheld this claim and gave the following ruling:"The 2001 Plan is a proper 'fit' because it is sufficiently flexible to determine school assignments for all students by a host of factors, such as residence, student choice, capacity, school and program popularity, pure chance and race." (ibid). It also opined that the plan was 'narrowly tailored' and should not have been based on race alone, which could give a discriminatory color to it, because America is not a separated society any more, like it was in the 1950s. The attorney representing the county argued that a small amount of inconvenience is negligible while comparing to the diversity that prevailed due to the plan in educational institutions. The plan came into existence in 1975 and under this plan, the Board maintained the same system for 25 years. POLITICAL

Aggregate planning in manufacturing and aggregate planning in services Assignment

Aggregate planning in manufacturing and aggregate planning in services - Assignment Example Companies dealing in manufacturing processes use a variety of strategies. The most common methods are the Level plans or the Chase strategies (Maropoulos, McKay & Bramall, 2002). The Chase method entails corresponding capacity and demand depending on the market situations. This method triggers a significant movement of human resource, increased costs associated with inventory carriage and labor union issues associated with human resource movement. This method ensures minimal inventory levels, saving large sums of money for the company. The Level method entails a constant production level, not dependent on the demand levels in the market. Companies that apply this method, therefore, maintain a constant employment rate. Organizations are, therefore, able to control inventory depending on market demand forecasts or future anticipations. Service provision does not involve tangible goods and, therefore, does not involve inventory accumulation. Organizations that provide services do not have the luxury of adjusting their "inventories" in periods of low or high demand. Therefore, services are regarded as fragile or consumables, whereby the services available but unused are regarded as wasted. A good example is in the transport industry, where companies offer bus services between destinations. An empty seat cannot be sold to another individual at a later period, and therefore considered as wasted. Aggregate planning is best suited for the manufacturing industry because organizations have the capability to create, hold and put up for sale stock at any period. On the other hand, aggregate planning in service provision varies significantly because services cannot be stocked. Both the capacity and the demand for service provision are difficult to assess and predict respectively. Labor is regarded as the most limiting factor in service

The Role Of Hrm Essay Example for Free

The Role Of Hrm Essay Suddenly, he has pleaded guilty to charges that are likely to land him in prison for 10 years, forfeited $29 million he personally made from operating the off-balance-sheet entities, and agreed to fully co-operate with the prosecutors. What caused Fastow’s about-turn was the likely indictment of his wife, Lea Fastow. The only condition he made for his plea bargain was that he and his wife should not go to prison at the same time. He wanted to ensure that his two children had at least one parent at home. Basically, he sacriï ¬ ced his self-interest, as he saw it, to protect the interests of his children and, to a lesser extent, those of his wife, who was also his high-school sweetheart. This was the same Andrew Fastow who designed Enron’s entire management system around a ï ¬ rm faith that employees pursued only their own self-interest. ‘You must allow people to eat what they hunt,’ he used to say, ‘only then will they hunt well.’ It was this philosophy that made Enron adopt one of the most extreme systems of individual incentives: when you started a new venture within Enron, you got phantom stocks relevant only to your venture. As long as your efforts made money, you got rich, irrespective of what happened to other parts of the company. As a result, everyone in Enron, including Fastow, acted like hunters – looking out only for themselves. The results of such behaviour are now well known. This is an interesting contrast, and it is by no means unusual. Most managers know that they themselves, and most other people, care about others close to them in their personal lives – their children, old friends, perhaps even some of their neighbours – and that they would happily incur some costs to help these people. At the same time, they also believe that, at work, people care only about their own self-interest. Even if they do not explicitly believe that, they design their companies’ organisational and managerial processes as if the motivation to voluntarily help others has no role in the ofï ¬ ce or the factory. The facts are clear. Most people pursue their self-interest. At the same time, except for a pathological few, most people also have an innate preference for helping others. And they like to help others not just as a means to further their own self-interest but also as an end in itself. This is equally true for people’s personal and work lives. Also, this is not something as grand as altruism; it’s much more mundane than that – it’s how just all of us ordinary folks are. What would happen if senior managers recognised that it was possible to build an organisation in which people derived as much joy from the success of others as from their own success, and designed their management processes accordingly? It would vastly change those processes. As an example, make a quick inventory of your HR processes and put them into two categories: those that reinforce the self-interest-seeking behaviours of people, and those that support their helping others. Look at concrete processes and mechanisms, not abstractions like values which, unless translated and embedded in speciï ¬ c practices, have little effect on behaviours. How long are the two lists? Can you do something to rebalance them? One possible difï ¬ culty you may face is that you do not quite know what you can do to support the more co-operative behaviours. For example, what speciï ¬ c kind of incentive systems might you use? What kind of decision-making processes can you adopt? Structurally, too, what can you do to hardwire non-selï ¬ shness – which is not at all the same thing as becoming a saint and not the obverse of self-sacriï ¬ ce – in your organisation? These are among the key questions that we, fellows of the Advanced Institute of Management Research, will be trying to answer. Much of the existing management research makes the same assumption as Fastow made about what motivates people at work. We will question and ENRON: SOMETHING’S GOT TO GIVE broaden these assumptions with the aim of coming up with rigorously researched theories that are not victims of pessimism about people, and that will, we hope, help you build highperformance organisations that are also delightful to work in. Watch this space. Source: Sumantra Ghoshal, People Management, 12 February 2004, p. 23. Discussion questions 1 What is the point of HR if employees are only out to serve themselves? 2 What role could the HR manager play in building an organisation that celebrates the success of others rather than individuals? The opening vignette gives a disturbing view of management practices. Enron encouraged employees to lose sight of organisational goals, in an attempt to serve their own goals. The chief ï ¬ nancial ofï ¬ cer of Enron, Andrew Fastow, encouraged self-interest by offering employees shares, which reï ¬â€šected the value of the business they brought to the company. The result: a culture of selï ¬ shness, which encouraged greed and ultimately destroyed the company. As an HR manager, your role in organisations will not be solely related to the concrete mechanisms of human resource management, such as the functions, but also abstract values, such as culture. Whether you work as a supervisor in a supermarket with responsibility for the checkout operators, the general manager of the local branch of a multinational bank, the union representative for a major airline or the director of HRM in a technology organisation, you will be responsible for managing people. You may have decided to choose people management because you have a love of people, but empathy for people is not necessarily what makes human resource practitioners effective. According to Hunt (1999), what is important for HR managers, is an understanding of the structures and climate in which people’s potential can be released, developed and rewarded. Andrew Fastow of Enron, although misguided, discovered this in his famous quote: ‘You must allow people to eat what they hunt – only then will they hunt well.’ However, he failed to understand the necessity of developing the whole organisation and the results are history. The Enron view of people management is not the view taken by all organisations. The John Lewis Partnership, for instance, also believes in giving its employees, or ‘partners’ as they are referred to by the company, a stake in the organisation. It achieves this by encouraging workers to co-operate to fulï ¬ l the company’s aims. In turn, employees are rewarded with a share of the proï ¬ ts. This book introduces you to the role of the people manager and human resource specialist. It also should be useful for general managers wanting to successfully manage and develop their employees. The book is designed not only to introduce you to the underlying theories and concepts that inform human resource practitioners but also to current practices necessary for the functions of HRM. At the moment, human resources (HR) is in a constant state of change, with Hunt (1999) suggesting that one of the following could happen. Human resources goes into decline – outsourcing and downsizing has removed the HR specialist from organisations and placed the HR role with the overworked line manager.

Learning strategies and styles

Learning strategies and styles Chapter Two Literature Review 2.1 Learning Strategies Learning strategies are steps taken by students to enhance their own learning. Strategies are especially important for language learning because they are tools for active, self-directed involvement, which is essential for developing communicative competence. Appropriate language learning strategies result in improved proficiency and greater self-confidence. Throughout history, the best language students have used strategies ranging from naturalistic language practice techniques to analytic, rule-based strategies. Learning strategy workshops are drawing big crowds at language teachers conventions. Researchers are identifying, classifying, and evaluating language learning strategies, and these efforts are resulting in a steady stream of articles on the topic. 2.1.1 Definition of Learning Strategies According to Chamot (1987), learning strategies are techniques, approaches, or deliberate actions that students take in order to facilitate the learning and recall of both linguistics and content area information. Oxford and Nams (1998) study indicates that learning strategies is a technical phrase that means any specific conscious action or behavior student takes to improve his or her own learning. Oxford (1990) considers that any specific action taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations is a language learning strategy (LLS). Strategies are the conscious steps of behavior used by language learners to enhance the acquisition, storage, retention, recall and one of new information (Oxford Ehrman, 1990). The concept of learning strategy is still a fuzzy one and not easy to have a final definition, though it has been over thirty years since researchers began the study of learning strategies. A summary of definitions of language learning strategies taken from the recent literature (Ellis, 1999:531) may help us have an overview of it. Chapter Two Literature Review 7 Table 2.1 Definitions of Learning Strategies Source Definitions Stern (1983)In our view strategy is best reserved for general tendencies or overall characteristics of the approach employed by the language learner, leaving techniques as the term to refer to particular forms of observable learning behavior. Weinstein and Learning strategies are the behaviors and thought that a learner Mayer (1986)engages in during learning that are intended to influence the learners encoding process. Rubin (1987)Learning strategies are strategies which contribute to the development of the language system which the learner constructs and affect learning directly. OMalley and the special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help them Chamot (1990)comprehend, learn, or retain new information Oxford (1990) Foreign or second language (L2) learning strategies are specific actions, behaviors, steps or techniques students use-often consciously-to improve their progress in apprehending, internalizing, and using the L2. Cohen (1998) Second language learner strategies constitute those processes which are consciously selected by learners and which may result in actions taken to enhance the learning or use of a second or a foreign language, through the storage, retention, recall, and application of information about that language. They encompass both language learning and language use strategies. Wen Qiufang Learning strategies are actions or measures which the students take in order to (2000) study more efficiently. This definition emphasizes two points: the goal of using learning strategies is the learners actions, rather than his/her thought. The action can be either exterior or interior. According to Ellis (1999), several problems arise form these varied definitions of this linguistic term. The first problem concerns whether language learning strategies are to be perceived of as behavioral (and therefore observable) or as mental, or as both. Oxford (1990) considers them as essentially behavioral, while Weinstein and Mayer (1986) thinks of them as both behavioral and mental. The second problem is the precise nature of the behaviors that are to count as learning strategies. Stern (1983) distinguishes strategies as general and more or less deliberate approach to learning, for example, an active task approach and techniques as observable forms of language learning behavior evident in particular areas in language learning, such 8 as grammar and vocabulary. Other researchers, however, have used the term strategy to refer to the kind of behaviors that Stern calls techniques. The third problem is whether learning strategies are to be seen as conscious and intentional or as subconscious. Chamot (1987) refers to them as deliberate actions. Seliger (1984) defines strategies as basic abstract categories of processing by which information perceived in the outside world is organized and categorized into cognitive structures as part of a conceptual network. However, some researchers consider that what starts out as a conscious tactic may involve into a subconscious strategy. The fourth one is about whether learning strategies are seen as having a direct or indirect effect on interlanguage development. Rubin (1987) asserts that the effect is a direct one. But other researchers, such as Stinger, consider it to be more indirect strategy use that provides learners with data, upon which the deep subconscious processes can work. Finally, there are differences in opinions about what motivates of the use of learning strategies. All the definitions above recognize that they are used in an effort to learn the L2, but Oxford (1989) also suggests that their use can have an affective purpose (i.e. to increase enjoyment). Although the definition is not always uniform, there are some basic characteristics in the generally accepted view of language learning strategy. Oxford (1990:9) summarizes her view of language learning strategies by listing twelve key features. She states that language learning strategies: contribute to the main goal, communicative competence. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ allow learners to become more self-directed. the role of teachers. are problem-oriented. are specific actions taken by the learner. involve many aspects of the learner, not just the cognitive. support learning both directly and indirectly. are not always observable. ari often conscious. can be taught. are flexible. Chapter Two Literature Review 9 are influenced by a variety of factors. After identifying the above elements involved in defining language learning strategies. and in order to avoid any confusion caused by different definitions and owing to the research instrument of SILL in this study, Oxfords definition (1990:8) of learning strategies is adopted throughout the this paper, in which learning strategies are seen as specific actions, behaviors, steps or techniques students often consciously use to improve their progress in apprehending, internalizing, and using, since this definition fully conveys the excitement or richness of learning strategies. 2.1.2 Classification of Learning Strategies Classification of language learning strategies has primarily followed the theory of cognition (Macaro, 2001). Cognition refers to how the brain works for information processing and retrieval. Strategies are used to retrieve and store new information in the brain till this information becomes automatic and such strategies are classified into a system by researchers and educators. Classification of strategies has many advantages. Learning strategies have been classified by many scholars (Wenden and Rubin, 1987; OMalley et. al, 1985; Oxford, 1990; Stem, 1992; Ellis, 1994, etc.). Strategy subsets enable researchers to describe the correspondence between mental processes and strategic processes (OMalley and Chamot, 1990). Strategy inventories may also serve as a valuable reference guide for educational instructors in the process of promoting autonomy in the language learner. Oxfords (1990) Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) is one such classification system linking groups thr ough a series of self-report assessments and questionnaires. Oxford divides strategies into two major classes: direct and indirect. Direct strategies refer to subconscious tasks, which are inherently learnt while indirect strategies refer to conscious strategies. These two classes are then subdivided into six sub-groups of memory, cognitive, compensation, social, affective and metacognitive. These subsets are interwoven with each other, creating an occasional overlap in the strategy groups. According to Oxford (1990), direct and indirect strategies and these six strategy categories function as a mutual support network within which various types of strategies enhance second language learning. Oxfords inventory is designed in a way to suit not only students learning English as a second/foreign language (ESL/EFL) in America but also students of any country. The inventory has already been translated into many languages and used as an effective tool for measuring strategy preferences and 10 developmental stages in strategy usage (Oxford and Burry-Stock, 1995). The inventory also has a well-understood underlying struct ure for strategy categorization and employs a wide range of strategies, all items of which are checked and rechecked for validity and reliability. However, the SILL categorization system is not without its limitations. SILL has been mainly based on research conducted on either groups of mixed nationalities learning English as a second/foreign language or native speakers of English learning a foreign language in the United States. As a result, Wharton (2000) refers to the dangers of ethnocentric bias and applicability regarding the definition of the good language learning strategies as defined by educators and researchers from the United States alone. Some studies have demonstrated that the most frequently used strategies in a foreign language context in Asia vary considerably from those in the second language context in the United States (Takeuchi et al., 1999; Takeuchi and Wakamoto, 2001). Takeuchi (2003:391) recognizes the importance of distinguishing between common strategies and context-specific (or environmental-unique) ones as promoting the survival of learners in the environment. OMalley and Chamot (1990:99), on the other hand, have differentiated strategies into three categories: cognitive, metacognitive and social/affective. Cognitive strategies are specified as learning steps that learners take to transform new material, for instance, inferring contextual guessing and relating new information to other concepts from memory. Metacognitive strategies involve consciously directing ones own efforts into the learning task. Social/affective strategies involve interaction with another person or taking control of ones own feelings on language learning. Wenden and Rubin (1987) again classifies learning strategies into two categories: cognitive (steps used by learners to process linguistic and socio-linguistic contents) and self-management (planning, monitoring and evaluating), on the basis of their learning functions. Macaro (2001) conceptualizes all language learning strategies as standing in a continuum without a clear line dividing the strategy types into particular areas. Cognitive strategies lie at one end with their inherent, subconscious, automatic tasks and metacognitive/social/affective at the other end with their conscious, evaluative strategies. Much of this classification research has been conducted in English as second/foreign language (ESLJEFL) settings. Regardless of how they are classified, the exact number of strategies available and how these strategies should be classified still remain open for discussion. A comparative analysis of various kinds of strategy classifications reported so Chapter Two Literature Review 11 far supported the view that OMalley and Chamots (1990) classification of strategies into cognitive, metacognitive and socio/affective strategies as well as Oxfords six-subset strategy taxonomy are more consistent with use of learners strategies than the direct and indirect dimensions (Hsiao and Oxford, 2002). Purdie and Oliver (1999) discuss the potential dangers of applying results of strategy studies with adults and adolescents to child second language learners. Apart from the psychological and sociological differences that exist between adults and children (Purdie and Oliver, 1999), the approach to se cond language acquisition among child learners has been associated more with first language acquisition (Larsen-Freeman, 1991). Among them, Oxfords classification (1990) is the most extensive and detailed one so far. Oxfords classification system is developed from Rubins and overlap with OMalleys to a great extent. And in this case study, one of the research questionnaires adopted is Oxfords Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL). Therefore, the framework of Oxfords classification of learning strategy (in Table 2.2) will be conducted in the study. Table 2.2 Oxfords Classification of Learning Strategies Creating metal linkages Applying images and sounds Memory Strategies Reviewing well Employing action Direct Strategies Practicing Cognitive Strategies Receiving and sending messages Creating structure for input and output Guessing intelligently Compensation Strategies Overcoming limitations in speaking and writing Centering your learning Metacognitive Strategies Arranging and planning your learning Evaluating your learning Lowering your anxiety Indirect Strategies Affective Strategies Encouraging yourself Taking your emotional temperature Asking question Social Strategies Cooperating with others Empathizing with others (Source: Oxford, 1990:17) 12 dElr#7b~}i~ 2.1.3 Researches on Learning Strategies Learning strategies have been examined by researchers through interviews, questionnaires, diaries, observations and think-aloud protocols. The researches are mainly found in the following three areas: (1) classification of language learning strategies, (e.g. Oxford, 1990; OMalley and Chamot, 1990; Wenden and Rubin, 1987); (2) variables affecting language learning strategy, (e.g. Nyikos and Oxford, 1993; Oxford and Nyikos, 1989; Oxford, Nyikos, and Ehrman, 1988; Wharton, 2000; Young and Oxford, 1997); and (3) the effect of strategy training on second language learning, (e.g. Kitajima, 1997; Oxford, 1990). All these studies provide insights into understanding the learning process by learners of a second language and are crucial in underpinning a framework for second language acquisition. The first area of research identifies strategies used by learners and classifies them according to a system or taxonomy. The second examines potential variables related to language learning strategies such as age, motivation, gender and learning styles. Finally, the third area research explores the effect of explicit instruction in strategies to produce better performance. Research on language learning strategies has been classified into three general categories: studies to define and classify strategies, studies to describe strategies in greater detail and the types of tasks with which the strategies are effective, and studies to validate the influence of strategic processing or learning. OMalley and Chamot as well as Ellis (1994) note that most of the researches on language learning strategies haves been cross-sectional and correlational in nature. Early research into language learning strategies was concerned with attempting to establish what good language learning strategies might be. While no explicit claims were made about links between strategies and success, the title of these early articles implied a relationship: What the Great Language Learner can Teach Us (Rubin, 1975), and What Can We Learn From the Good Languages Learner? (Stern,1975). Researchers were hoping to identify strategies used by successful learners with the idea that they might be transferred to less successful learners. Notable studies carried out since these early two include Naiman, Frohlich, Stern, and Todesccos (1978) study, Rubins (1981) study and the work done by OMalley, Chamot, Stewner-Manzanares, Kupper, and Russo (1985). Much of the work on language learner strategies has been based on the assumption Chapter Two Literature Review 13 that there are good learning strategies (Rubin, 1975), but some studies (Naerrsson, 1985; Gillette, 1987) find no difference between high and low-proficiency groups on specific strategies. Consequently, the total number or variety of strategies employed and the frequency with which any given strategy is used are not necessarily indicators of how successful learners will be on a language task (Cohen, 1998). In view of these mixed results more studies are still made necessary. More recently, there have been studies on the benefits of strategy training. The goal of strategy training is to teach students how, when and why strategies can be used to facilitate their efforts at learning and using a foreign language. Strategy training is intended to help students explore ways that they can learn the target language more effectively, as well as to encourage students to self-evaluate and self-direct their learning. The first step in this process is to help learners recognize strategies which they have already used, and then to develop a wide range of strategies, so that they can select appropriate and effective strategies within the context of particular language tasks. A further goal of strategy training is to promote learner autonomy and learner self-direction by allowing students to choose their won strategies and to do so spontaneously, without continued prompting from the language teacher. Learners should be able to monitor and evaluate the relative effective ness of their strategy use, and more fully develop their problem-solving skills. Strategy training can thus be used to help learners achieve learner autonomy as well as linguistic autonomy. There are mixed reactions to the language strategies training movement in the literature, mainly because there have been few empirical studies to demonstrate that such training has irrefutable benefits. So far in the researches of learning strategies, a number of models for teaching learning strategies in both first and second language contexts have been developed. These international models share many features. All agree on the importance of developing student metacognitive understanding of the value of learning strategies and suggest that this is facilitated through teacher demonstration and modeling. All emphasize the importance of providing multiple practice opportunities with the strategies so that students can use them autonomously. All suggest that student should evaluate how well a strategy has worked, choose strategies for a task, and actively transfer strategies to new tasks. Anyhow, the previous researches all focused on the successful language learners or 14 d~7 r#7 f.(s ~C the common subjects. So far few studies have been carried out for the low achievers in language learning. Thus, the research on low language achievers is quite a new area in the studies of learning strategies and learning styles. 2.2 Learning Styles Learning style refers to the preferred ways which individuals use to solve problems confronted in their learning. The learners learning styles are often not perceived or used consciously. Learning style plays an important role for everyone to learn, to obtain information, to communicate with others. Knowing their own learning styles will help students to improve their language learning proficiency. 2.2.1 Definition of Learning Style The term learning style originates from psychology. It broadly refers to the way in which a learner tries to learn something, based on individual characteristics, used unconsciously and not perceived. Everyone has a learning style, but each persons is as unique as a signature. Each signature appears to be influenced by both nature and nurture. And Keefe (1979: 4) defines learning style as characteristic cognitive, affective, and physiological behaviors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with and respond to the learning environment; Learning style is a consistent way of functioning that reflects underlying causes of behavior. This definition is most comprehensive and acceptable. In 1987, Willing defines learning style as an inherent, pervasive set of characteristics related with how learners prefer to learn or to deal with new information. Reid (1995, 69) defines learning style as an individuals natural, habitual, and preferred way(s) of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills, and a pervasive quality in the learning strategy or the learning behavior of an individual. Oxford Ehrnan (1991) define the term learning style as preferred or habitual patterns of mental functioning and dealing with new information. And Dum and Dunn (1993: 7) define learning styles as a biological and developmental set of personal characteristics that make the identical instruction effective for some students and infective for others. To make it simple, language learning styles are the styles used in language learning, are the general Chapter Two Literature Review 15 approaches which students are predominantly disposed to use in order to learn a new language (Ehrman and Oxford, 1995:69), Oxford believes that language learning styles are likely to be a direct refection of the individuals overall learning style that is normally applies in most learning or working situations. And in 1984, Reid generates six kinds of learning styles. At the same time, she provided the Perceptual Learning Style Preference Survey to test the characteristics of learning styles of learners. And in psychological researches, the personality types influence individuals learning preference a lot. Thus, to some extent, the personality types of individuals can be taken as ones learning styles. Myers Briggs Type Theory was developed to provide practical application of the theory of psychology types originated by Carl Jung in 1923. It aims to identify individuals preferences, their most comfortable ways of behaving, including learning. And now it is used broadly in many areas to identify ones styles in learning, working, etc. Therefore, in the light of the overview of the definitions of learning styles, we can assume that learning styles are the preference of individuals with respect to how they learn based on ones own personality types. 2.2.2 Classification of Learning Style Many researchers have tried different ways to investigate learning styles. Among them, some have used survey to collect data on learners stated learning preferences. In 1984, Reid generated six kinds of learning styles and provided the Perceptual Learning Style Preference Survey. Reids six learning styles are as follows: Visual learning (e.g. reading and studying charts, learning from seeing words in books, and participating class discussion) Auditory learning (e.g. listening to lectures or audio tapes, reading aloud and participating class discussions) Kinesthetic learning (e.g. involving physical responses, role-playing in the classroom, actively participating in activities) Tactile learning (e.g. hands-on learning as in building models; writing notes or instructions) Group learning (e.g. learning with others) Individual learning (e.g. learning alone) 16 ff7r#lj:*bflftii~` Later Willing (1987) did another survey to investigate the learning styles of 517 adult ESL learners in Australia. According to the collected data, he identified two major dimensions of learning style. One was cognitive and corresponded closely to that of field independence/dependence. The other was more affective in nature. Based on these two dimensions, Willing describes four general learning styles (Table 2.3). Table 2.3 Willings Classification of Learning Styles General learning style Main characteristics Concrete learning style Direct means of processing information people-oriented; spontaneous; imaginative; Non-routinized learning Analytical learning style Focuses on specific problems and proceeds by means of hypothetical-deductive reasoning; prefers logical, didactic presentation Communicative learning style Fairly independent; highly adaptable and flexible; enjoying taking decisions Authority-orientated learning style Depends on other people; needs teachers directions and explanations; dislikes discovery learning (Source: Willing, 1987:67) Then, a more important classification is given by Oxford. Oxford identifies five learning styles in her Style Analysis Survey (SAS) in 1993. She makes the point that each style preference offers significant benefits for learning and that the important thing is for learners to identify the style preferences for that work and to apply them whenever possible. She notes that learners comfortable zone is their favorite style. The following is a description of the style contrast that appears on the SAS. The use of physical senses for study and work: visual vs. auditory vs. hands-on Dealing with other people extroversion vs. introversion Handling passable: inquisitive- random vs. concrete-sequential Approaching tasks: closure-oriented vs. open Dealing with ideas: global vs. analytic In addition to these prominent classifications, there are still some other classifications given by different scholars. Nelson (1973) distinguishes referential and expressive learners. And Peter (1977) identifies that some learners are analytic (i.e. word-learners processing information through a sequence of stages of acquisition) and some are gestalt Chapter Two Literature Review 17 (i.e. sentence-learners who begin with whole sentences which are used to perform function that are important to them). And Reid (1998) goes overview of the classification of learning styles (Table 2.4). It is a full-scale of the main classifications of learning styles of the previous researches. In L2 learning, learners clearly differ enormously in their preferred approach. But it is hard to say which style is the best. Among them, the classification of learning styles by Myers-Brigs Type Indicator will be conducted as the basic classification of learning styles in the following case study. Table 2.4 Reid's Overview on the Classification of Learning Styles Right-and Left brained Learning Styles Right-Brained Learns more effectively through visual analytic, reflective, self-retaining learning Left-Brained Learns more effectively throught auditory, global, impulsive, interactive learning The Seven Multiple Intelligence Verbal/Linguistic Ability with and sensitivity to oral and written words Musical Sensitivity to rhythm, pitch, and melody Logical/Mathematical Ability to use numbers effectively and to reason well Spatial/Visual Sensitivity to form, space, colour, line, and shape Bodily/Kinaesthetic Ability to use the body to express ideas and feelings Interpersonal Ability to understand another person's moods and intensions Intrapersonal Ability to understand oneself one's own strengths and weaknesses Perceptual Learning Styles Visual Learns more effectively through the eyes(seeing) Auditory Learns more effectively through the ear (hearing) Tactile Learns more effectively through touch (hands-on) Kinesthetic Learns more effectively through complete body experience Group Learns more effectively through working with others Individual Learns more effectively through working alone Field Independent and Field Dependent (Sensitive) Learning Styles Field Independent Learns more effectively sequentially, analyzing facts Field Dependent Learns more effectively in context (holistically) and is sensitive to human relationship>. Analytical and Global Learning Styles Analytical Learns more effectively individually, sequentially, linearly Global Learns more effectively through concrete experience and through interaction with other people Reflective and Impulsive Learning Style Reflective Learns more effectively when given time to consider options Impulsive Learns more effectively when able to respond immediately 18is#7~f4ii~~C Kolb Experiential. Learning Model Converger Learns more effectively when able to perceive abstractly and to process actively Diverger Learns more effectively when able to perceive concretely and to process reflectively Assimilator Learns more effectively when able to perceive abstractly and to process reflectively Accommodator Learns more effectively when able to perceive concretely and to process actively Myers-Briefs Type Indicator (MBTI) Extroverted Learns more effectively through concrete experience, contacts with and relationships with others Introverted Learns more effectively in individual, independent learning situations Sensing Learns more effectively from reports of observable facts Intuition Learns more effectively from meaningful experiences Thinking Learns more effectively from impersonal and logical circumstances Feeling Learns more effectively from personalized circumstances Judging Learns more effectively by reflection, deduction, analysis, and process that involve Perceiving closure Learns more effectively through negotiation, feeling and inductive processes tha postpone closure 2.2.3 Researches on Learning Styles There are lots of variable that can affect each learning style. It might be difficult to analyze the overall learning profile of a learner. Therefore, the researchers in this field have mainly focused on learning styles influence on language development, factors affecting learning styles, and how are learning styles related to language learning strategies. The study of learning styles influence on language development and proficiency is perhaps one of the widely conducted studies. Eliot (1995) in studying teaching pronunciation argues that field-independence is found to be a significant predictor of pronunciation accuracy. The potential influence of learning styles is also found out in the researchers made by Oxford et al (1992), and Ehraman and Oxford respectively. However, Griffiths and Sheen (1992) argues that the emb